Abstract
The small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have difficulties to overcome the national boundaries. Among the motivations of this difficulty, there is a lack or inadequacy of competences; it emerges a limit presence of professionals able to face the trial of commercial or productive internationalization. The paper addresses the requirements of professional competences in SMEs operating in the international markets, focussing on the way by which enterprises fill the competence gap. The analysis considers a sample of 300 exporting SMEs located in Lombardy region. The results underline the prevalence of training on the job and coaching in comparison to classroom teaching. In addition research shows that skills’ gap reported by SMEs does not concern specialized competences - as for instance the knowledge of the international trade law or the business ones. Rather skills’ gap is a matter of linguistic knowledge. The causes of the scarce appeal of teaching rest on different explanation such as the characteristics of the geography of internationalization, the international activity developed by SMEs, by the characteristics of markets and by the strategies of development pursued. A binary logit model tests the importance of these factors, and it evidences that coaching and training on the job are substitutes rather than complements of classroom teaching and other external sources of competenciesReferences
Aaby N.E., Stanley F.S. (1989), “Managerial Influences on Export Performance: a Review of The Empirical Literature 1978-88”, International Marketing Review, 6 (4), 53-68.
AlMadhoun M. (2006), “Training Under Fire: the Relationship Between Obstacles Facing Training and SMEs’ Development in Palestine”, Journal of European Industrial Training, 30(2),
100-116.
Banca d’Italia (2006), Indagine Sulle Imprese Industriali e dei Servizi Anno di Riferimento 2003, Banca d’Italia, Roma.
Bannò M., Sgobbi F. (2005), “HRM Practices at Foreign Subsidiaries: Are SME Really Different?”, Relazione presentata alla XXXI Conferenza della European International Business
Academy.
Barkema H., Bell J., Pennings J. (1996), “Foreign Entry, Cultural Barriers and Learning”, Strategic Management Journal, 17(1), 151-166.
Barnett W.P., McKendrick, D.G. (2004), “Why Are Some Organizations More Competitive Than Others? Evidence from a Changing Global Market”, Administrative Science Quarterly,
49(4), 535-571.
Barney J.B. (1991), “Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage”, Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120.
Bartlett C.A., Ghoshal S. (1987), “Managing Across Borders: New Strategic Requirements”, Sloan Management Review, 28(4), 7-17.
Benito, G. R.G., Gripsrud, G. (1992), “The Expansion of Foreign Direct Investments: Discrete Rational Location Choices or a Cultural Learning Process?”, Journal of International
Business Studies, 23(3), 461-476.
Bilkey W.J., Tesar G. (1977), “The Export Behaviour of Smaller Wisconsin Manufacturing Firms”, Journal of International Business Studies, 8 (1), 93-98.
Blomström M., Lipsey R.E. (1991), “Firm size and foreign operations of multinationals”, The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 93(1), 101-107.
Bonaccorsi A. (1992), “On The Relationship Between Firm Size and Export Intensity”, Journal of International Business Studies, 23(4), 605-635.
Calof J.L., Beamish P.W. (1995), “Adapting to Foreign Markets: Explaining Internationalization”, International Business Review, 4(2), 115-31.
Castellani D., Zanfei A. (2006), “Internationalisation, Innovation And Productivity: How Do Firms Differ in Italy?”, The World Economy, forthcoming.
Cavusgil S.T. (1982), “Some Observations on The Relevance of Critical Variables for Internationalization Stages”, in Czinkota M.R., Tesar G. (eds.), Export Management: An international Context, Praeger, New York.
Cavusgil S.T., Godiwalla Y.M. (1982), “Decision Making for International Marketing: a Comparative Review”, Management Decision, 20 (4), 47-54.
Chetty S. K., Hamilton R.T. (1993), “Firm-level Determinants of Export Performance: a Meta-analysis”, International Marketing Review, 10 (3), 26-34.
Confindustria Lombardia (2005), Ricerca sui Processi di Internazionalizzazione delle Imprese Lombarde (Associate al Sistema di Confindustria Lombardia), Confindustria, Milano.
De Kok J., Uhlaner L.M. (2001), “Organization Context and Human Resource Management in the Small Firm”, Small Business Economics, 17(4), 273.
Dunford M. (2006), “Industrial Districts, Magic Circles, and the Restructuring of the Italian Textiles and Clothing Chain”, Economic Geography. 82(1), 27-59.
Eriksson K., Johansson J., Majkgård A. (2000), “Effect of Variation on Knowledge Accumulation in the Internationalization Process”, International Studies of Management & Organization, 30(1), 26-44.
Eriksson K., Johansson J., Majkgård A., Sharma D.D. (1997), “Experential knowledge and Cost in the Internationalization Process”, Journal of International Business Studies, 28(2),
337-360.
Erramilli M.K. (1991), “The Experience Factor in Foreign Market Entry Behaviour of Services Firms”, Journal of International Business Studies, 22(3), 479-501.
Erramilli M.K., Rao C.P. (1993), “Service Firms’ International Entry-mode Choice: a Modified Transaction-cost Analysis Approach”, Journal of Marketing, 57, 19-38.
Gemunden H.G. (1991), “Success Factor of Export Marketing: a Meta-Analytic Critique of the Empirical Studies”, in Palowoda S.J. (eds), New Perspectives on International Marketing, Routledge, London.
Gunhan S., Arditi D. (2005), “International Espansion for Construction Companies”, Journal of Constructione Engineering & Management, 131(8), 929-937.
Hayton J.C. (2003), “Strategic Human Capital Management in SMEs: an Empirical Study of Entrepreneurial Performance”, Human resource management, 42(4), 375-391.
Hill C.W.L. (2000), International Business: Competing in the Global Marketplace, McGraw-Hill, London.
Hofstede G. (1980), Cultural Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage, Beverly Hills.
ICE, Censis (2004), E-learning per l’Internazionalizzazione delle PMI Italiane, ICE-Censis, Roma.
ICE, Censis (2005), Rapporto ICE 2004-2005. L’Italia nell’Economia Internazionale, ICE-Censis, Milano.
ICE, Istat (2006), Rapporto ICE 2005-2006. L’Italia nell’Economia Internazionale, ICE Istat, Roma.
IReR (2005), Survey sulle Imprese e sulla Struttura Economica Lombarda (Rapporto non pubblicato), Milano.
Johanson J., Vahlne J.E. (1977), “The Internationalization Process of the Firm: a Model of Knowledge Development and Increasing Foreign Commitments”, Journal of International
Business Studies, 8(1), 23 32.
Johanson J., Vahlne J.E. (1990), “The Mechanism of Internationalization”, International Marketing Review, 7(4), 1-24.
Klaas B.S. (2003), “Professional Employer Organizations and Their Role in Small and Medium Enterprises: The Impact of HR Outsourcing”, Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 28(1), 43-61.
Knight G.A. (2000), “Entrepreneurship and Marketing Strategy: The SME Under Globalization”, Journal of International Marketing, 8(2), 12-32.
Knight G.A. (2001), “Entrepreneurship and Strategy in International SMEs”, Journal of International Management, 7, 155-171.
Kundu S.K., Katz J.A. (2003), “Born-International SMEs: BI-Level Impacts of Resources and Intentions”, Small Business Economics, 20(1), 25-47.
Lamb P.W., Liesch P.W. (2002), “The Internationalization Process of the Smaller Firm: Reframing the Relationships between Market Commitment, Knowledge and Involvement”, Management International Review, 42(1), 7-26.
Lehmann H., Gallupe B. (2005), “Information Systems for Multinational Enterprises—some Factors at Work in Their Design and Implementation”, Journal of International
Management, 11(2), 163-186.
Leonidou L.C., Katsikeas C.S. (1996), “The Export Development Process: an Integrative Review of Empirical Models”, Journal of International Business Studies, 27(3), 517-551.
Leonidou L.C., Katsikeas C.S., Piercy N.F. (1988), “Identifying Managerial Influences on Exporting: Past Research and Future Directions”, Journal of International Marketing, 6(2),
74-102.
Liao T.F. (1994), “Interpreting Probability Models.: Logit, Probit and Other Generalized Linear Models”, Sage University Paper series on Quantitative Applicatins in the Social Science,
Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.
Madhok A. (1996), “Know-How, Experience and Competition-Related Considerations in Foreign Market Entry: An Exploratory Investigation”, International Business Review, 5(4), 339-366.
Manolova T., Brush C., Edelman, L, Greene P. (2002), “Internationalization of small firms: personal factors revisited”, International Small Business Journal, 20(1), 9-31.
McDougall P.P., Oviatt B.M. (2000), “International Entrepreneurship: the Intersection of Two Research Paths”, Academy of Management Journal, 43(5), 902-906.
McKinsey (2005), “The McKinsey Global Survey of Business Executives”, McKinsey Quarterly, 1, 58-64.
Minbaeva D., Pedersen T., Björkman I., Fey C.F., Park H.J. (2003), “MNC Knowledge Transfer, Subsidiary Absorptive Capacity, and HRM”, Journal of International Business
Studies, 34(6), 586-599.
Mutinelli M. (2001), “L’internazionalizzazione Produttiva delle Imprese Italiane: Caratteristiche Strutturali, Tendenze Evolutive e Motivazioni”, in Garavello O., Barba
Navaretti G. (eds) Investimenti Esteri delle Imprese Italiane nei Paesi Emergenti, Giuffrè Editore, Milano.
Petrick J.A., Scherer R.F., Brodzinski J.D., Quinn J.F., Ainina M.F. (1999), “Global Leadership Skills and Reputational Capital: Intangible Resources for Sustainable
Competitive Advantage”, Academy of Management Executive, 13(1), 58-69.
Rudra N. (2005), “Are Workers in the Developing World Winners or Losers in the Current Era of Globalization?”, Studies in Comparative International Development, 40(3), 29-64.
Rugman A.M. (1996), The Theory of Multinational Enterprises. The Selected Scientific Papers of Alan M. Rugman, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
Rugman A.M., Hodgetts R.M. (2000), International Business: a Strategic Management Approach (2 edn), Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Harlow.
Sameer K., Liu D. (2005), “Impact of Globalisation on Entrepreneurial Enterprises in the World Markets”, International Journal of Management & Enterprise Development, 2(1), 46-64.
Shane S. (1994), “Championing Innovation in the Global Corporation”, Research Technology Management, 37(4), 29-36.
Spigarelli F. (2003), “I Processi di Internazionalizzazione delle PMI. Un’Analisi Empirica Sul Contesto Produttivo Marchigiano”, Economia & Management, 3, 57-78.
Sullivan D., Bauerschmidt A. (1990), “Incremental Internationalization: a Test of Johanson and Vahlne’s Thesis”, Management International Review, 30 (1), 19-30.
Unioncamere (2001), Internazionalizzazione e Territorio, Unioncamere, Milano, 2001.
Unioncamere (2005), Le Piccole e Medie Imprese nell’Economia Italiana. Rapporto 2004. Franco Angeli, Milano.
Wright P., Brewster C. (2003), “Editorial: Learning From Diversity: HRM is Not Lycra”, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(8), 1299-1307.
Zaheer S. (1995), “Overcoming the Liability of Foreigners”, Academic of Management Journal, 38(2), 341-363.
AlMadhoun M. (2006), “Training Under Fire: the Relationship Between Obstacles Facing Training and SMEs’ Development in Palestine”, Journal of European Industrial Training, 30(2),
100-116.
Banca d’Italia (2006), Indagine Sulle Imprese Industriali e dei Servizi Anno di Riferimento 2003, Banca d’Italia, Roma.
Bannò M., Sgobbi F. (2005), “HRM Practices at Foreign Subsidiaries: Are SME Really Different?”, Relazione presentata alla XXXI Conferenza della European International Business
Academy.
Barkema H., Bell J., Pennings J. (1996), “Foreign Entry, Cultural Barriers and Learning”, Strategic Management Journal, 17(1), 151-166.
Barnett W.P., McKendrick, D.G. (2004), “Why Are Some Organizations More Competitive Than Others? Evidence from a Changing Global Market”, Administrative Science Quarterly,
49(4), 535-571.
Barney J.B. (1991), “Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage”, Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120.
Bartlett C.A., Ghoshal S. (1987), “Managing Across Borders: New Strategic Requirements”, Sloan Management Review, 28(4), 7-17.
Benito, G. R.G., Gripsrud, G. (1992), “The Expansion of Foreign Direct Investments: Discrete Rational Location Choices or a Cultural Learning Process?”, Journal of International
Business Studies, 23(3), 461-476.
Bilkey W.J., Tesar G. (1977), “The Export Behaviour of Smaller Wisconsin Manufacturing Firms”, Journal of International Business Studies, 8 (1), 93-98.
Blomström M., Lipsey R.E. (1991), “Firm size and foreign operations of multinationals”, The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 93(1), 101-107.
Bonaccorsi A. (1992), “On The Relationship Between Firm Size and Export Intensity”, Journal of International Business Studies, 23(4), 605-635.
Calof J.L., Beamish P.W. (1995), “Adapting to Foreign Markets: Explaining Internationalization”, International Business Review, 4(2), 115-31.
Castellani D., Zanfei A. (2006), “Internationalisation, Innovation And Productivity: How Do Firms Differ in Italy?”, The World Economy, forthcoming.
Cavusgil S.T. (1982), “Some Observations on The Relevance of Critical Variables for Internationalization Stages”, in Czinkota M.R., Tesar G. (eds.), Export Management: An international Context, Praeger, New York.
Cavusgil S.T., Godiwalla Y.M. (1982), “Decision Making for International Marketing: a Comparative Review”, Management Decision, 20 (4), 47-54.
Chetty S. K., Hamilton R.T. (1993), “Firm-level Determinants of Export Performance: a Meta-analysis”, International Marketing Review, 10 (3), 26-34.
Confindustria Lombardia (2005), Ricerca sui Processi di Internazionalizzazione delle Imprese Lombarde (Associate al Sistema di Confindustria Lombardia), Confindustria, Milano.
De Kok J., Uhlaner L.M. (2001), “Organization Context and Human Resource Management in the Small Firm”, Small Business Economics, 17(4), 273.
Dunford M. (2006), “Industrial Districts, Magic Circles, and the Restructuring of the Italian Textiles and Clothing Chain”, Economic Geography. 82(1), 27-59.
Eriksson K., Johansson J., Majkgård A. (2000), “Effect of Variation on Knowledge Accumulation in the Internationalization Process”, International Studies of Management & Organization, 30(1), 26-44.
Eriksson K., Johansson J., Majkgård A., Sharma D.D. (1997), “Experential knowledge and Cost in the Internationalization Process”, Journal of International Business Studies, 28(2),
337-360.
Erramilli M.K. (1991), “The Experience Factor in Foreign Market Entry Behaviour of Services Firms”, Journal of International Business Studies, 22(3), 479-501.
Erramilli M.K., Rao C.P. (1993), “Service Firms’ International Entry-mode Choice: a Modified Transaction-cost Analysis Approach”, Journal of Marketing, 57, 19-38.
Gemunden H.G. (1991), “Success Factor of Export Marketing: a Meta-Analytic Critique of the Empirical Studies”, in Palowoda S.J. (eds), New Perspectives on International Marketing, Routledge, London.
Gunhan S., Arditi D. (2005), “International Espansion for Construction Companies”, Journal of Constructione Engineering & Management, 131(8), 929-937.
Hayton J.C. (2003), “Strategic Human Capital Management in SMEs: an Empirical Study of Entrepreneurial Performance”, Human resource management, 42(4), 375-391.
Hill C.W.L. (2000), International Business: Competing in the Global Marketplace, McGraw-Hill, London.
Hofstede G. (1980), Cultural Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage, Beverly Hills.
ICE, Censis (2004), E-learning per l’Internazionalizzazione delle PMI Italiane, ICE-Censis, Roma.
ICE, Censis (2005), Rapporto ICE 2004-2005. L’Italia nell’Economia Internazionale, ICE-Censis, Milano.
ICE, Istat (2006), Rapporto ICE 2005-2006. L’Italia nell’Economia Internazionale, ICE Istat, Roma.
IReR (2005), Survey sulle Imprese e sulla Struttura Economica Lombarda (Rapporto non pubblicato), Milano.
Johanson J., Vahlne J.E. (1977), “The Internationalization Process of the Firm: a Model of Knowledge Development and Increasing Foreign Commitments”, Journal of International
Business Studies, 8(1), 23 32.
Johanson J., Vahlne J.E. (1990), “The Mechanism of Internationalization”, International Marketing Review, 7(4), 1-24.
Klaas B.S. (2003), “Professional Employer Organizations and Their Role in Small and Medium Enterprises: The Impact of HR Outsourcing”, Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 28(1), 43-61.
Knight G.A. (2000), “Entrepreneurship and Marketing Strategy: The SME Under Globalization”, Journal of International Marketing, 8(2), 12-32.
Knight G.A. (2001), “Entrepreneurship and Strategy in International SMEs”, Journal of International Management, 7, 155-171.
Kundu S.K., Katz J.A. (2003), “Born-International SMEs: BI-Level Impacts of Resources and Intentions”, Small Business Economics, 20(1), 25-47.
Lamb P.W., Liesch P.W. (2002), “The Internationalization Process of the Smaller Firm: Reframing the Relationships between Market Commitment, Knowledge and Involvement”, Management International Review, 42(1), 7-26.
Lehmann H., Gallupe B. (2005), “Information Systems for Multinational Enterprises—some Factors at Work in Their Design and Implementation”, Journal of International
Management, 11(2), 163-186.
Leonidou L.C., Katsikeas C.S. (1996), “The Export Development Process: an Integrative Review of Empirical Models”, Journal of International Business Studies, 27(3), 517-551.
Leonidou L.C., Katsikeas C.S., Piercy N.F. (1988), “Identifying Managerial Influences on Exporting: Past Research and Future Directions”, Journal of International Marketing, 6(2),
74-102.
Liao T.F. (1994), “Interpreting Probability Models.: Logit, Probit and Other Generalized Linear Models”, Sage University Paper series on Quantitative Applicatins in the Social Science,
Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.
Madhok A. (1996), “Know-How, Experience and Competition-Related Considerations in Foreign Market Entry: An Exploratory Investigation”, International Business Review, 5(4), 339-366.
Manolova T., Brush C., Edelman, L, Greene P. (2002), “Internationalization of small firms: personal factors revisited”, International Small Business Journal, 20(1), 9-31.
McDougall P.P., Oviatt B.M. (2000), “International Entrepreneurship: the Intersection of Two Research Paths”, Academy of Management Journal, 43(5), 902-906.
McKinsey (2005), “The McKinsey Global Survey of Business Executives”, McKinsey Quarterly, 1, 58-64.
Minbaeva D., Pedersen T., Björkman I., Fey C.F., Park H.J. (2003), “MNC Knowledge Transfer, Subsidiary Absorptive Capacity, and HRM”, Journal of International Business
Studies, 34(6), 586-599.
Mutinelli M. (2001), “L’internazionalizzazione Produttiva delle Imprese Italiane: Caratteristiche Strutturali, Tendenze Evolutive e Motivazioni”, in Garavello O., Barba
Navaretti G. (eds) Investimenti Esteri delle Imprese Italiane nei Paesi Emergenti, Giuffrè Editore, Milano.
Petrick J.A., Scherer R.F., Brodzinski J.D., Quinn J.F., Ainina M.F. (1999), “Global Leadership Skills and Reputational Capital: Intangible Resources for Sustainable
Competitive Advantage”, Academy of Management Executive, 13(1), 58-69.
Rudra N. (2005), “Are Workers in the Developing World Winners or Losers in the Current Era of Globalization?”, Studies in Comparative International Development, 40(3), 29-64.
Rugman A.M. (1996), The Theory of Multinational Enterprises. The Selected Scientific Papers of Alan M. Rugman, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
Rugman A.M., Hodgetts R.M. (2000), International Business: a Strategic Management Approach (2 edn), Financial Times/Prentice Hall, Harlow.
Sameer K., Liu D. (2005), “Impact of Globalisation on Entrepreneurial Enterprises in the World Markets”, International Journal of Management & Enterprise Development, 2(1), 46-64.
Shane S. (1994), “Championing Innovation in the Global Corporation”, Research Technology Management, 37(4), 29-36.
Spigarelli F. (2003), “I Processi di Internazionalizzazione delle PMI. Un’Analisi Empirica Sul Contesto Produttivo Marchigiano”, Economia & Management, 3, 57-78.
Sullivan D., Bauerschmidt A. (1990), “Incremental Internationalization: a Test of Johanson and Vahlne’s Thesis”, Management International Review, 30 (1), 19-30.
Unioncamere (2001), Internazionalizzazione e Territorio, Unioncamere, Milano, 2001.
Unioncamere (2005), Le Piccole e Medie Imprese nell’Economia Italiana. Rapporto 2004. Franco Angeli, Milano.
Wright P., Brewster C. (2003), “Editorial: Learning From Diversity: HRM is Not Lycra”, International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(8), 1299-1307.
Zaheer S. (1995), “Overcoming the Liability of Foreigners”, Academic of Management Journal, 38(2), 341-363.
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