Abstract
Human capital and social networks are two pillars of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems (EEs), which are nowadays increasingly shaped by international migration flows. Migrant entrepreneurs are at the same time locally present and culturally diverse from the mainstream host society, thus being prone
to separation from the native community and participation to different social clusters, characterized by different venture types and access to institutions. Public agencies and incubators might be pivotal in facilitating the socialization of migrant entrepreneurs and the networked reciprocal exchange with other entrepreneurs. This paper sheds light on this overlooked issue by drawing on explorative interviews in Milan, Italy, in two incubators and the municipality. The findings show how the attraction
and inclusion of migrant entrepreneurs is influenced both by EE attributes and by actors’ strategies and culture. This work offers novel insights contributing to the literature and policymaking on entrepreneurship
and ecosystems
References
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Agostini, L., & Nosella, A. (2019). Inter-organizational relationships involving SMEs: A bibliographic investigation into the state of the art. Long Range Planning, 52, 1-31
Ambrosini, M. (2012). Migrants' entrepreneurship in transnational social fields: research in the Italian context. International Review of Sociology, 22(2), 273-292.
Arrighetti, A., Bolzani, D., & Lasagni, A. (2014). Beyond the enclave? Break-outs into mainstream markets and multicultural hybridism in ethnic firms. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 26(9-10), 753-777.
Autio, E., Kenney, M., Mustar, P., Siegel, D. & Wright, M. (2014). Entrepreneurial innovation: The importance of context. Research Policy, 43(7),1097-1108.
Barrett, G., Jones, T., McEvoy, D., & McGoldrick, C. (2002). The economic embeddedness of immigrant enterprise in Britain. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 8(1/2), 11-31.
Berry, J.W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46(1), 5-68.
Bolzani, D. (2019). Internationalization Intentions in Domestic New Technology-Based Firms: A Comparison Between Immigrant and Non-immigrant Entrepreneurs. In M. Elo & I. Minto-Coy (Eds.), Diaspora Networks in International Business. Contributions to Management Science (pp. 423-447). Springer, Cham.
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Chaganti, R., & Greene, P. G. (2002). Who are ethnic entrepreneurs? A study of entrepreneursapos; ethnic involvement and business characteristics. Journal of Small Business Management, 40(2), 126-143.
College of Europe (2017). Leading the way in local public service delivery.
College of Europe, European Centre for government transformation, Accenture. Available at: file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/College%20of%20Europe%20Final%20Report%202017.pdf, retrieved July 1st, 2019.
Cucculelli, M., & Morettini, G. (2012). Transnational ties in technology-based sectors: The case of Indian software entrepreneurial firms in Italy. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 17(3), 319–337.
Dana, L.-P. (1997). The origins of self-employment in ethno-cultural communities: Distinguishing between orthodox entrepreneurship and reactionary enterprise. Revue Canadienne Des Sciences de l’Administration, 14(1), 52–68.
Davidsson, P., & Honig, B. (2003) The role of social and human capital among nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 301–331
Demartini, P., & Del Baldo, M. (2015). Knowledge and social capital: Drivers for sustainable local growth. Chinese Business Review, 14(2), 106-117.
Denis, J. L., Ferlie, E., & Van Gestel, N. (2015). Understanding hybridity in public organizations. Public Administration, 93(2), 273-289.
Elfring, T., & Hulsink, W. (2003). Networks in entrepreneurship: The case of high-technology firms. Small Business Economics, 21(4), 409-422.
Engelen, E. (2002). How innovative are Dutch immigrant entrepreneurs? Constructing a framework of assessment. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 8(1/2), 69-92.
European Commission (2016). Evaluation and Analysis of Good Practices in Promoting and Supporting Migrant Entrepreneurship: Guide Book. Luxembourg: EU Publications Office.
Feld, B. (2012). Startup Communities: Building an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem in Your City. New York: Wiley.
Florida, R., Mellander, C., & Stolarick, K. (2008). Inside the black box of regional development: human capital, the creative class and tolerance. Journal of Economic Geography, 8, 615–649.
Gioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., & Hamilton, A. L. (2013). Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research: Notes on the Gioia methodology. Organizational Research Methods, 16(1), 15-31.
Glaeser, E. L., Rosenthal, S. S., & Strange, W. C. (2010) Urban economics and entrepreneurship. Journal of Urban Economics, 67, 1–14.
Grimaldi, R., & Grandi, A. (2005). Business incubators and new venture creation: an assessment of incubating models. Technovation, 25(2), 111-121.
Heilbrunn, S., & Kushnirovich, N. (2007). Immigrant and indigenous enterprises: similarities and differences. International Journal of Business Performance Management, 9(3), 344-361.
Italian Ministry of Economic Development (2019). Italia Startup Visa & Hub. 1st quarterly report, 2019. Summary of main findings up to 31 March 2019. Available at: https://www.mise.gov.it/images/stories/documenti/ISVH-1st-quarterly-report-2019-08_04_2019.pdf, retrieved July 1st, 2019.
Isenberg, D.J. (2010). How to Start an Entrepreneurial Revolution. Harvard Business Review, 88(6), 41-50.
ISTAT (2019). Popolazione residente al 1 gennaio 2019. Dataset available at: http://dati.istat.it/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=DCIS_POPRES1, retrieved July 1, 2019.
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Kloosterman, R. C. (2010). Matching opportunities with resources: A framework for analysing (migrant) entrepreneurship from a mixed embeddedness perspective. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 22(1), 25-45.
Kloosterman, R. C., & Rath, J. (2010). Shifting landscapes of immigrant entrepreneurship. In Open for Business: Migrant Entrepreneurship in OECD Countries (pp. 101–123). Paris: OECD.
Light, I. (1972). Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Light, I. (1979). Disadvantaged minorities in self-employment. The International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 20, 31-45.
Light, I., & Dana, L. P. (2013). Boundaries of social capital in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(3), 603-624.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 415-444.
Meyer, R. E., & Hammerschmid, G. (2006). Changing institutional logics and executive identities: A managerial challenge to public administration in Austria. American Behavioral Scientist, 49 (7), 1000–1014.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (Eds.) (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Morgan, H. M., Sui, S., & Baum, M. (2018). Are SMEs with immigrant owners exceptional exporters?. Journal of Business Venturing, 33(3), 241-260.
Neck, H. M., Meyer, G. D., Cohen, B., & Corbett, A. C. (2004). An entrepreneurial system view of new venture creation. Journal of Small Business Management, 42(2), 190-208.
Nedelcu, M. (2012). Migrants' new transnational habitus: rethinking migration through a cosmopolitan lens in the digital age. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38(9), 1339-1356.
Neumeyer, X., Santos, S. C., & Morris, M. H. (2019). Who is left out: exploring social boundaries in entrepreneurial ecosystems. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 44(2), 462-484.
OECD/EU (2015). Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Pauwels, C., Clarysse, B., Wright, M., and Van Hove, J. (2016). Understanding a new generation incubation model: The accelerator. Technovation, 50: 13-24.
Portes, A., & Sensenbrenner, J. (1993). Embeddedness and immigration: Notes on the social determinants of economic action. American Journal of Sociology, 98(6), 1320-1350.
Qian, H., Acs, Z. J., & Stough, R. R. (2013). Regional systems of entrepreneurship: the nexus of human capital, knowledge and new firm formation. Journal of Economic Geography, 13(4), 559-587.
Rajiman, R., & Tienda, M. (2000). Immigrants pathways to business ownership: A comparative ethnic perspective. International Migration Review, 34(3), 682-706.
Ram, M., & Smallbone, D. (2002). Ethnic Minority Business Support in the Era of the Small Business Service. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 20, 235-249.
Rath, J., & Swagerman, A. (2016). Promoting ethnic entrepreneurship in European cities: Sometimes ambitious, mostly absent, rarely addressing structural features. International Migration, 54(1), 152-166.
Romanelli, E., & Khessina, O. (2005). Regional industrial identity: cluster configurations and economic development. Organization Science, 16, 344–358.
Sammarra, A., & Biggiero, L. (2001). Identity and identification in industrial districts. Journal of Management and Governance, 5, 61–82.
Saxenian, A. (2002). Local and global networks of immigrant professionals in Silicon Valley. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy Institute of California.
Smallbone, D., Bertotti, M., & Ekanem, I. (2005). Diversification in Ethnic Minority Business: The Case of Asians in London’s Creative Industries. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 12 (1), 41–56.
Social Innovation Monitor (2018). Impatto degli incubatori/acceleratori italiani. Ricerca 2018. Available at: https://www.agadvisory.it/wp/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/SIM-Report-Incubatori-2018_Lite.pdf, retrieved July 1st, 2019.
Solano, G., Wolffhardt, A., & Xhani, A. (2019). Measures to support early-stage migrant entrepreneurs. MEGA Handbook. Available at https://www.migpolgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/A.1.b-1.pdf, retrieved 25 July 2019.
Spigel, B. (2017). The relational organization of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41(1), 49-72.
Stam, E. (2015). Entrepreneurial ecosystems and regional policy: A sympathetic critique. European Planning Studies, 23(9), 1759-1769.
Stam M. & Spigel, B. (2017). Entrepreneurial Ecosystems. In Blackburn, R., De Clercq, D., Heinonen, J. & Wang, Z. (Eds) (2017) Handbook for Entrepreneurship and Small Business. London: SAGE.
Storper, M. (2013). Keys to the city: How economics, institutions, social interaction, and politics shape development. Princeton University Press.
Strauss, A.L., & Corbin, J. M. (Eds.) (1990). Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newsbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(6), 1024-1054.
Zahra, S. A., Wright, M., & Abdelgawad, S. G. (2014). Contextualization and the advancement of entrepreneurship research. International Small Business Journal, 32, 479-500.
Zhou, M. (2004). Revisiting Ethnic Entrepreneurship: Convergencies, Controversies, and Conceptual Advancements. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1040-1074.
Amin, A., & Thrift, N. (1994). “Living in the global” in Amin, A. and N. Thrift (eds.) (1994) Globalisation, institutions and regional development in Europe. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Agostini, L., & Nosella, A. (2019). Inter-organizational relationships involving SMEs: A bibliographic investigation into the state of the art. Long Range Planning, 52, 1-31
Ambrosini, M. (2012). Migrants' entrepreneurship in transnational social fields: research in the Italian context. International Review of Sociology, 22(2), 273-292.
Arrighetti, A., Bolzani, D., & Lasagni, A. (2014). Beyond the enclave? Break-outs into mainstream markets and multicultural hybridism in ethnic firms. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 26(9-10), 753-777.
Autio, E., Kenney, M., Mustar, P., Siegel, D. & Wright, M. (2014). Entrepreneurial innovation: The importance of context. Research Policy, 43(7),1097-1108.
Barrett, G., Jones, T., McEvoy, D., & McGoldrick, C. (2002). The economic embeddedness of immigrant enterprise in Britain. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 8(1/2), 11-31.
Berry, J.W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46(1), 5-68.
Bolzani, D. (2019). Internationalization Intentions in Domestic New Technology-Based Firms: A Comparison Between Immigrant and Non-immigrant Entrepreneurs. In M. Elo & I. Minto-Coy (Eds.), Diaspora Networks in International Business. Contributions to Management Science (pp. 423-447). Springer, Cham.
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CCMI-MBLO (Camera di Commercio Milano Monza Brianza Lodi) (2019b). Le imprese di Milano Monza Brianza Lodi. Statistics, 2nd quarter 2019. https://www.milomb.camcom.it/i-numeri-delle-imprese, retrieved July 31, 2019.
Censis (2016). Dallo smontaggio della città-fabbrica alla nuova manifattura urbana. Press release for the event “Le città dei Maker”, Rome, 13 October 2016. Available at: https://www.rm.camcom.it/moduli
/downloadFile.php?file=oggetto_comunicati/17371057360O__OCS%20citt%E0%20dei%20Makers.docx, retrieved July 1st, 2019.
Chaganti, R., & Greene, P. G. (2002). Who are ethnic entrepreneurs? A study of entrepreneursapos; ethnic involvement and business characteristics. Journal of Small Business Management, 40(2), 126-143.
College of Europe (2017). Leading the way in local public service delivery.
College of Europe, European Centre for government transformation, Accenture. Available at: file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/College%20of%20Europe%20Final%20Report%202017.pdf, retrieved July 1st, 2019.
Cucculelli, M., & Morettini, G. (2012). Transnational ties in technology-based sectors: The case of Indian software entrepreneurial firms in Italy. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 17(3), 319–337.
Dana, L.-P. (1997). The origins of self-employment in ethno-cultural communities: Distinguishing between orthodox entrepreneurship and reactionary enterprise. Revue Canadienne Des Sciences de l’Administration, 14(1), 52–68.
Davidsson, P., & Honig, B. (2003) The role of social and human capital among nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 301–331
Demartini, P., & Del Baldo, M. (2015). Knowledge and social capital: Drivers for sustainable local growth. Chinese Business Review, 14(2), 106-117.
Denis, J. L., Ferlie, E., & Van Gestel, N. (2015). Understanding hybridity in public organizations. Public Administration, 93(2), 273-289.
Elfring, T., & Hulsink, W. (2003). Networks in entrepreneurship: The case of high-technology firms. Small Business Economics, 21(4), 409-422.
Engelen, E. (2002). How innovative are Dutch immigrant entrepreneurs? Constructing a framework of assessment. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 8(1/2), 69-92.
European Commission (2016). Evaluation and Analysis of Good Practices in Promoting and Supporting Migrant Entrepreneurship: Guide Book. Luxembourg: EU Publications Office.
Feld, B. (2012). Startup Communities: Building an Entrepreneurial Ecosystem in Your City. New York: Wiley.
Florida, R., Mellander, C., & Stolarick, K. (2008). Inside the black box of regional development: human capital, the creative class and tolerance. Journal of Economic Geography, 8, 615–649.
Gioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., & Hamilton, A. L. (2013). Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research: Notes on the Gioia methodology. Organizational Research Methods, 16(1), 15-31.
Glaeser, E. L., Rosenthal, S. S., & Strange, W. C. (2010) Urban economics and entrepreneurship. Journal of Urban Economics, 67, 1–14.
Grimaldi, R., & Grandi, A. (2005). Business incubators and new venture creation: an assessment of incubating models. Technovation, 25(2), 111-121.
Heilbrunn, S., & Kushnirovich, N. (2007). Immigrant and indigenous enterprises: similarities and differences. International Journal of Business Performance Management, 9(3), 344-361.
Italian Ministry of Economic Development (2019). Italia Startup Visa & Hub. 1st quarterly report, 2019. Summary of main findings up to 31 March 2019. Available at: https://www.mise.gov.it/images/stories/documenti/ISVH-1st-quarterly-report-2019-08_04_2019.pdf, retrieved July 1st, 2019.
Isenberg, D.J. (2010). How to Start an Entrepreneurial Revolution. Harvard Business Review, 88(6), 41-50.
ISTAT (2019). Popolazione residente al 1 gennaio 2019. Dataset available at: http://dati.istat.it/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=DCIS_POPRES1, retrieved July 1, 2019.
Kerr, S. P. & Kerr, W. (2019). Immigrant Networking and Collaboration: Survey Evidence from CIC. NBER WP 25509. Forthcoming in The Roles of Immigrants and Foreign Students in U.S. Science, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship, by Ganguli, Kahn, and MacGarvie (Eds), 2019.
Kloosterman, R. C. (2010). Matching opportunities with resources: A framework for analysing (migrant) entrepreneurship from a mixed embeddedness perspective. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 22(1), 25-45.
Kloosterman, R. C., & Rath, J. (2010). Shifting landscapes of immigrant entrepreneurship. In Open for Business: Migrant Entrepreneurship in OECD Countries (pp. 101–123). Paris: OECD.
Light, I. (1972). Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Light, I. (1979). Disadvantaged minorities in self-employment. The International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 20, 31-45.
Light, I., & Dana, L. P. (2013). Boundaries of social capital in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(3), 603-624.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 415-444.
Meyer, R. E., & Hammerschmid, G. (2006). Changing institutional logics and executive identities: A managerial challenge to public administration in Austria. American Behavioral Scientist, 49 (7), 1000–1014.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (Eds.) (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Morgan, H. M., Sui, S., & Baum, M. (2018). Are SMEs with immigrant owners exceptional exporters?. Journal of Business Venturing, 33(3), 241-260.
Neck, H. M., Meyer, G. D., Cohen, B., & Corbett, A. C. (2004). An entrepreneurial system view of new venture creation. Journal of Small Business Management, 42(2), 190-208.
Nedelcu, M. (2012). Migrants' new transnational habitus: rethinking migration through a cosmopolitan lens in the digital age. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38(9), 1339-1356.
Neumeyer, X., Santos, S. C., & Morris, M. H. (2019). Who is left out: exploring social boundaries in entrepreneurial ecosystems. The Journal of Technology Transfer, 44(2), 462-484.
OECD/EU (2015). Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2015: Settling In, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Pauwels, C., Clarysse, B., Wright, M., and Van Hove, J. (2016). Understanding a new generation incubation model: The accelerator. Technovation, 50: 13-24.
Portes, A., & Sensenbrenner, J. (1993). Embeddedness and immigration: Notes on the social determinants of economic action. American Journal of Sociology, 98(6), 1320-1350.
Qian, H., Acs, Z. J., & Stough, R. R. (2013). Regional systems of entrepreneurship: the nexus of human capital, knowledge and new firm formation. Journal of Economic Geography, 13(4), 559-587.
Rajiman, R., & Tienda, M. (2000). Immigrants pathways to business ownership: A comparative ethnic perspective. International Migration Review, 34(3), 682-706.
Ram, M., & Smallbone, D. (2002). Ethnic Minority Business Support in the Era of the Small Business Service. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 20, 235-249.
Rath, J., & Swagerman, A. (2016). Promoting ethnic entrepreneurship in European cities: Sometimes ambitious, mostly absent, rarely addressing structural features. International Migration, 54(1), 152-166.
Romanelli, E., & Khessina, O. (2005). Regional industrial identity: cluster configurations and economic development. Organization Science, 16, 344–358.
Sammarra, A., & Biggiero, L. (2001). Identity and identification in industrial districts. Journal of Management and Governance, 5, 61–82.
Saxenian, A. (2002). Local and global networks of immigrant professionals in Silicon Valley. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy Institute of California.
Smallbone, D., Bertotti, M., & Ekanem, I. (2005). Diversification in Ethnic Minority Business: The Case of Asians in London’s Creative Industries. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 12 (1), 41–56.
Social Innovation Monitor (2018). Impatto degli incubatori/acceleratori italiani. Ricerca 2018. Available at: https://www.agadvisory.it/wp/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/SIM-Report-Incubatori-2018_Lite.pdf, retrieved July 1st, 2019.
Solano, G., Wolffhardt, A., & Xhani, A. (2019). Measures to support early-stage migrant entrepreneurs. MEGA Handbook. Available at https://www.migpolgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/A.1.b-1.pdf, retrieved 25 July 2019.
Spigel, B. (2017). The relational organization of entrepreneurial ecosystems. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41(1), 49-72.
Stam, E. (2015). Entrepreneurial ecosystems and regional policy: A sympathetic critique. European Planning Studies, 23(9), 1759-1769.
Stam M. & Spigel, B. (2017). Entrepreneurial Ecosystems. In Blackburn, R., De Clercq, D., Heinonen, J. & Wang, Z. (Eds) (2017) Handbook for Entrepreneurship and Small Business. London: SAGE.
Storper, M. (2013). Keys to the city: How economics, institutions, social interaction, and politics shape development. Princeton University Press.
Strauss, A.L., & Corbin, J. M. (Eds.) (1990). Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newsbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(6), 1024-1054.
Zahra, S. A., Wright, M., & Abdelgawad, S. G. (2014). Contextualization and the advancement of entrepreneurship research. International Small Business Journal, 32, 479-500.
Zhou, M. (2004). Revisiting Ethnic Entrepreneurship: Convergencies, Controversies, and Conceptual Advancements. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1040-1074.
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